Archive for January, 2010
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Buy Fresh, Buy Local: Director of Sustainable Living Systems in Corvallis Says Bitterroot’s Ready for New and Sustainable Food System
Posted on January 11th, 2010 by admin
Buy Fresh, Buy Local: Director of Sustainable Living Systems in Corvallis says Bitterroots ready for new and sustainable food system
By Brian DAmbrosio
Jill Davies is the director of Sustainable Living Systems, a non-profit organization dedicated to teaching environmentally favorable approaches to food production. She hopes to increase enthusiasm for the building of a new and vibrant local food system. Creating a secure community food system, capable of supporting sustainable agriculture right here in the Bitterroot, is something she aims to achieve through a mixture of education and persuasiveness.
Generally speaking, local food is a principle of sustainability relying upon the consumption of locally grown food products. Local food initiatives are part and parcel of local purchasing concepts; they are based upon preferences to buy locally generated goods and services.
The concept is often related to the slogan Think globally, Act locally, prevalent in green politics. Those in favor of developing a local food economy, like Davies and the folks at Corvallis-based Sustainable Living Systems, believe that since food is essential for everyone, everywhere, every single day, then a slight change in the way it is produced and advertised will have a tremendous result on individual health and the overall ecosystem.
Local food is also often interpreted as being organic, or produced by farmers who adopt sustainable and lenient practices. Many local food advocates tend to equate local food with material produced by independent farmers in the community, while equating non-local food with food produced and transformed by large agribusiness.
Fresh, organically grown food is more nutritious, says Davies. Healthy food from a healthy soil creates healthy bodies and minds.
Proponents like Davies say shopping decisions favoring local food consumption directly influence the well-being of people because local food is unprocessed and tastes better than food shipped long distances from other states or countries.
When you have a local food system you get exceptional taste and freshness, says Davies.
Furthermore, she says, a local food system will improve the local economy, strengthen the alternative food network and may be ecologically more sustainable.
Strengthening the local economy, says Davies, means buying local produce as a method of keeping your dollars circulating in the community. Forming dependable, sincere and cognizant relationships with the farmers growing your groceries is also a part of that development process.
Institutions, including schools, restaurants, nursing homes, and hospitals, will play a key role in the creation and advancement of a local food system. Getting these institutions to commit to buying at least some local products, even if its only carrots or lettuce, is a pretty solid starting point. Buy Fresh, Buy Local signs are a unique part of the information campaign, too.
Help from these institutions is most important, Davies says. We want to educate the public to look for our signs, and know that places displaying these signs are carrying fresh, local products, she says.
Davies grew up around the time of the transformation from organic agriculture to industrial agriculture, and speaks about a vanished time when the Bitterroot Valley was the former breadbasket of Montana.
Up until the 1950s, the Bitterroot produced the majority of the states food, she says.
Now, all the food eaten here comes from far away from Albertsons, Safeway and Super One. There are few organic food producers here. Only a small percentage of the food eaten actually originates here. Most of it comes from industrial agriculture sources from far away.
Davies studied biodynamics in England in the early 1970s. Based on a series of lectures given in the early 1920s by the Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner, biodynamics merges the practices of organic agriculture. But it goes a bit deeper by trying to harmonize the growers work with other subject matters, such as gravity, magnetism, and lunar phases.
After working in the gardens of a commune in France, and then on a biodynamic truck farm in Switzerland, she returned to the United States. Davies again traveled to England in 1999, attending a course at Schumacher College on biotechnology in agriculture, and has been immersed in this issue ever since. Her agricultural and organic knowledge has been advanced by agro-ecology guru Helen Atthowe, whose certified organic vegetable and fruit farm is east of Stevensville.
Davies hopes that our geographic region will once again serve as a principal source of grain and produce supply, and that a food co-op site will be found or built by next spring. Hopefully, well have a store opened by then. The co-op will be a gigantic component of the local food system
In order for this consumer food outlet to materialize, more grants need to be written, more meetings held, additional subscribers signed up, and further loans obtained. The Bozeman Food Co-op, boasting 14,000 members and an interrelated network of community cooperative consumers and farmers, small businesses and local producers, remains the model worthy of replication.
Part of building a sustainable, local food system that fosters the economic health of the Bitterroots communities and farms, includes, said Davies, prohibiting the proliferation of big box stores like Wal-Mart. The worlds largest retailer and largest private employer (1.3 million employees), Wal-Mart, raked in over $312 billion in sales last year.
But recently, the company has drawn intense scrutiny, from the Bitterroot Good Neighbors Coalition, for its negative economic impact, its poor wages, lack of affordable health coverage for its employees, and its stiff resistance to unionization. These Wal-Mart super centers are the number one food retailers in the country. One of the first steps to building and nurturing a local economy is keeping out such places. Box stores dont purchase locally produced products to be sold in their stores. This leads to a decrease in the amount of local cash flow that changes hands.
Another objective Davies touts is the development of local food storage, processing and distribution facilities. Consumers subscribing to this reasoning may be able to buy food directly from local family farms or through other direct channels such as farmers markets, food cooperatives, like the planned Co-op and retail outlet, and community-supported agricultural programs.
The Bitterroot Valley is definitely ready for a good co-op program, self-sufficient food planning, and a healthier food system.
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Agricultural Directory- a Complete Guide for Modern Day Farming
Posted on January 11th, 2010 by admin
An agricultural directory is an online directory that provides valid information regarding the goods and services of the agricultural industry. It is an updated and maintained reference for use by the business community, government and other related organizations.
Modern day farming is as technical and competent as any other industry. Agriculture industry needs highly skilled professional such as soil analyst, agricultural consultants, marketing and finance specialists, and software developers for farming to name just a few.
The agricultural industry is no longer a labor intensive industry. Due to specialization and the growing demand for this sector a lot of modern equipments are being used to aid production. These tools include acre counters, seeders and spreaders, hydraulic equipments, weather sensors, tractors, and many more that has freed agriculture from the traditional ways of farming.
It is through the agricultural directory that buyers and sellers can find relevant information about these products and services.
An agricultural directory can have following features:
- Horticulture
- Crop insurance
- Water management
- Pest management
- Farm energy
- Organic farming
- Livestock
- Sustainable forestry
- Agro-ecology
- Bio-intensive gardening
- Agriculture information service
- Education programs on agriculture
- Export and import information
The main objective of this directory is to cater to the needs of the agricultural industry. Farmers and cultivators require information about marketing options, government rules and regulations, government subsidy programs, suppliers of basic inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, specialized services for analysis and consultancy and news of new innovation in the farming sector. All these up to date and comprehensive information is provided by the agricultural directory. It can also act as a communication channel that offers global accessibility to the company’s products and service offerings. Through this directory a local farmer can easily become a global farmer and expand its potential target market to many times its current size.
The directory can be used as a platform to exploit export opportunities abroad by providing information of importers. Importers in other countries would easily be able to obtain their requirements with the help of such regional directories. Promoting the agricultural activities in a country is another objective served by national agriculture directories that focus on the suppliers in one particular country.
Benefits of listing your company in an agricultural directory:
- Increased Visitors to your Website
- Higher Search Engine Rankings
- Increased Customer Contacts via Telephone Calls, Emails, Website visits and Local Dealer Contacts
- Increased Overall Sales Activities
- More market accessibility
- Cost effective ways to advertise your product
- Staying informed about new products and innovations in the agriculture industry.
Conclusion:
Agriculture is as dynamic as any other sector in a modern day industry. Technological advancement and new discoveries have revolutionized the industry. Farmers and cultivators are not only using high tech equipments such as acre counters and weather sensors along with the conventional inputs such as seeds, pesticides and fertilizers, but are also consulting with experts about the environmental consequences, sustainable farming, crop insurance, asset assessment, finance, and marketing to name a few.
Today’s agricultural directory covers all these areas and maintains up to date information. It also provides useful links to regional and national directories. Agricultural directory is the ideal channel to link buyers and sellers of agricultural products and services on a national and global scale.
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Arizona Resort and Day Spa Tops the World’S Best List
Posted on January 11th, 2010 by admin
By Barbara Wade
Since their inception in the 1980s, day spas have become wildly popular worldwide. In a culture filled with stress, hectic schedules and a mind-numbing pace, spas offer welcome and much-needed downtime if even for an hour or two. According to two prominent industry authorities, when offered a global selection of destinations, travelers placed southwest locations – such as Scottsdale, Arizona resorts and spas – at the top of their lists.
In fact, three of the top five spas that earned Travel and Leisure’s World’s Best Award for 2007 were located in Arizona. What makes this state such a prime destination? The climate.
Benefits of Arizona’s Dry Climate
Ask anyone with allergies and they will quickly tell you they can breathe easier in a dry climate as opposed to a humid one. That’s primarily because chronically high levels of humidity (as often found in southern states) bring with it higher levels of mold and other unwanted irritants. In addition, humidity can cause breathing problems for those with asthma because it can contribute to the swelling of airways.
The solution lies in the dry, desert climate of cities like Tucson or Scottsdale. Resort hotels and spas in this region of Arizona stood out in SpaFinder’s 2007 State of Spa Travel survey. Given global choices, respondents noted that spas on the West Coast and in the Southwest United States were their top choices. But that’s not the only opinion they voiced.
Travelers #1 Consideration
The SpaFinders survey revealed participants number-one consideration when making travel plans for a spa: the facilities. Over half of respondents reported that the accommodations and spa offerings were what they considered as most important in making their selections. One quarter named cuisine, activities, desirable region, proximity to sightseeing and attractions, among other factors, as most important.
One Scottsdale, Arizona resort keys in on these customer desires by offering specialty accommodations including patio guestrooms, garden courtyard guestrooms and lagoon guestrooms. The accompanying spa boasts the use of certified organic and biodynamic herbs from their own herb farms to enhance traditional massage, manicure, pedicure and facial treatments.
Most Important Element
Whether they chose to visit Palm Springs, Austin or Scottsdale, resort-goers expressed that pampering was the biggest draw for attending a spa, with a full 84% describing it as “very important.” That should come as no surprise since the primary purpose of day spas has always been to pamper and de-stress its clientele.
Restaurants
One further consideration should be the cuisine available at the resort or spa you choose. While it typically isn’t mandatory that guests dine at the on-site restaurant, oftentimes packages are available that include restaurant privileges. If you have a preference of food or adhere to a particular diet, you might benefit by asking for details regarding dining options.
You’ll certainly want to take part in both sides of the spa experience: soothing and rejuvenating the outside as well as cleansing and pampering the inside. Ask about steam spa treatments to flush the skin followed by juices, broths or herbal teas designed to rid your system of unwanted elements that accumulate over time.
Then indulge yourself with an invigorating massage in the morning and a virtuous yet elegant dinner at night. With highly acclaimed, five-star chefs on staff, spa restaurants are well known for meals that are both nutritious and delectable.
Whether you agree with what those in these surveys voiced or have your own set of criteria for choosing a resort and spa, one thing is certain: You’ll feel rejuvenated, more relaxed and likely have a better outlook after your visit.
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Earthern and Pot Culture Method to Check the Stability of Marine Azotobacter in Soil
Posted on January 11th, 2010 by admin
INTRODUCTION
Among the three major habitats of the biosphere, the marine realm which covers 70% of the earths surface provides the largest inhabitable space for living organisms. The study of marine bacterial diversity is important in order to understand the community structure and pattern of distribution (Surajit Das et al 2006). For many years, the filamentous blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) were believed to be primarily responsible for N2 fixation in oceanic waters because low or negligible in situ rates were observed in their absence and there was a correlation of in situ N2 fixation with light intensity. However, evidence has been accumulating which documents the importance of bacterial N2 fixations in many and diverse marine habitats ( MARY LOU GUERINOT et al 1985) . It is commonly assumed that marine bacteria, since they live in the sea, must be Salt-tolerant organisms. ZoBell and Upham define marine bacteria as being bacteria from the sea which on initial isolation required seawater in the medium for growth. Therefore analysis of marine water will provide the effect of salts on the growth of marine Azotobacter. Biofertilizers are the source of microbial inoculants, which have brought hopes for many countries both economically and environmentally. Azotobacter sp is free living, known to fix atmospheric nitrogen. There are different strains of Azotobacter each has varied chemical, biological and other characters. Azotobacter and Azospirillum are two other efficient bacteria. The response of these organisms in increasing crop yield has been commonly experienced. These are the biofertilizers in the cultivation of most crops. Inoculation of soil or seed with Azotobacter is effective in increasing yields of crops in well-manured soil with high organic matter content. Experiments with Azotobacter cultures and crop plants at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, lead us to believe that significant increases in growth and yield of wheat, rice and vegetable crops could be obtained in pot trials. However, under field conditions, such uniform trends towards increases in yield are not always reproducible. We carried out pot culture experiment in order to assess the effects of Azotobacter isolated from marine source on the growth of Black gram. Their shoot length, root length and their chlorophyll content were measured.
MATERIALS AND METHOD:
Sample collection:
Samples of surface water were collected in the area of Thundi region (Palk Bay) .Sample collection was accomplished at the interval of approximately 20 days
Surface water samples (at depths of 1-2 m) were collected in sterile tube containing Azotobacter selective medium. Sediment samples were collected separately in broth medium. (Table .1 and 2)
Chemical parameter of sea water:
Collected water samples were analyzed for total hardness i.e the presence of magnesium and calcium by EDTA (0.01 M Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) titration method. Total Chlorine content was analyzed by Mohr method.
In EDTA method 60 ml of water sample was pipetted to an Erlenmeyer flask. About 2ml of buffer solution (mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide), was added to the sample. A few drops of indicator(Eriochrome black) were added and the solution was gently stried. The EDTA solution was taken in the burette and titrated with water sample until the color of the solution turns red to purple to blue. As soon as the color of the solution turned blue, stopped the titration and record the final level of EDTA solution in the burette. Finally the experimental concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the unknown water sample was calculated. The hardness of water sample can be classified using a sum of all the calcium and magnesium ions in solution.
In Mohr method 20 ml of sodium chloride (0.01 M) solution was pipette in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Approx 2ml of dipotassium chromate indicator was added to the solution. Solution was turned bright yellow color. Silver nitrate (0.01 M) solution was taken in the burette. The known chloride was titrated with silver nitrate until the color changed from bright yellow to brick red color (swirl the flask constantly to see the uniform color). Finally the experimental concentration of chloride in the known solution was calculated.
To determine unknown chloride, 5 ml of water sample was taken in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. 2ml of indicator (dipotassium chromate) was added. Silver nitrate (0.01 M) solution was taken in the burette. The water sample was carefully titrated with silver nitrate solution. Near the end point drop by drop was added from the burette as soon as the color of the solution turned yellow to red, stopped the reaction and recorded the final level of silver nitrate solution in the burette. Finally the experimental concentration of chloride in the unknown solution was calculated.
Media preparation:
Different selective media were used for the isolation of Azotobacter sp from marine source. As the isolates are of marine origin, the media were prepared by adding 3 % sodium chloride (NaCl). Media used for the isolation of nitrogen fixing organism (Azotobacter) from marine sources were: (Table 3)
1). Jensens Agar Medium (with 3% NaCl)
2). Azotobacter Agar Medium (with 3% NaCl)
3). Burks Medium (with 3% NaCl)
4). Marine agar medium.
Processing of samples (Kannan, 2002):
10 ml of water sample were mixed with 90 ml of sterile distilled water it gave 10-1 dilution. From the 10-1 dilution, the sample was decimally diluted up to 10-9 dilutions. By using spread plate technique, 0.1ml of diluted sample was plated in a sterile Petri plates, containing selective media. The plates were incubated at room temperature (28 C) for 48-72 hours.
Identification of isolates:
Grams staining (Kannan, 2002)
Gram staining reactions were recorded from heat fixed smears of fresh cultures.
Catalase test:
Catalase test was performed by adding 3% hydrogen peroxide drop by drop to the slant of fresh Azotobacter culture. Presence or absence of bubbling was recorded.
Phase contrast microscopic observation:
Motility and cell shape were determined by direct observations of wet mounts of fresh broth cultures, using phase- contrast microscopy. (Table 4)
Acetylene Reduction Assay:
Individual colonies were picked, purified, and assayed as pure cultures for nitrogenase activity, using N-deficient medium. This technique is an indirect method of measuring nitrogen fixation at a point of time. This method provides a simple, inexpensive, highly sensitive and non-destructive procedure for measuring rates of nitrogen fixation. Cultures were randomly selected for this assay. Serum bottles with rubber stoppers were collected, cleaned and sterilized. 30 ml of the sterilized Azotobacter broth was transferred to each bottle .The organisms were inoculated in the medium and incubated at 28 C for 3-4 days .after incubation 10 ml of nitrogen gas , 3 ml of acetylene gas was injected in to the serum bottles using syringe ( N2 replaces the air inside the bottle). Incubated the bottles for over nite at 28 C. at the end of the incubation period, 0.5 ml of the gas sample was withdrawn from the bottle and injected in to a gas chromatograph with FID system with 80-100 mesh Poro PAK/ propack Q column. The column temperature was maintained at 80 C, detector temperature at 100 C and injector temperature at 120 C . The carrier gas used was nitrogen with a flow rate of 30ml/ sec, for flame ionization hydrogen and zero air at the rate of 30ml/sec .the area of ethylene peak was recorded for each culture. Randomly selected samples which showed maximum enzyme activity were selected for pot culture experiment.
Analysis of garden soil for Chemical and nutrient content for pot culture experiment:
Garden soil was collected from rhizosphere region. Collected soil was analysed for the presence of N, P, K, Copper, manganese, iron, and zinc.(Table 5)
Pot culture experiment :
The nitrogen fixing ability of the isolated Azotobacter sp was determined in garden soil by pot culture experiment by assessing the growth of black gram. After 7 days of sowing various characteristics of growth such as root and shoot length was measured and chlorophyll content was estimated. Experiment was carried out in GRD College. Coimbatore.
Healthy viable seeds were selected for the experiment .Each pot contains 50 viable seeds. 10-12 kg of finely processed soil was filled in each pot .sterilized the pots with soil at 15 lb pressure for 4 hrs. The broth containing active culture of Azotobacter (1 109 cells) was selected. Five efficient strains were selected based on acetylene reduction assay for the experiment. The broth cultures of the selected Azotobacter sp were observed under phase contrast microscope prior to inoculation. Pots were selected for the experiment was thoroughly cleaned with disinfectant. Pots were filled with right combination of soil.
The healthy seeds were selected. Those seeds were mixed with 3ml of Azotobacter inoculums and 3ml of cool rice porridge. Then the seeds were dried
Fifty seeds were sown in each pot. The pots were watered every day. The control pot was devoid of the bacterial inoculums. The effects of bacterial inoculums on the growth of plant root, shoot length were measured on the 7th, 14th, 21st day of plant growth.
Growth characters:
1. Percentage of germination
2. Shoot length
3. Root length
Percentage of germination:
The germination rate of all treated and control plant was calculated by using the following formula: (Table 6)
Number of seeds germinated
Percentage of germination = —————————————– 100
Number of seeds sown
Shoot length:
The shoot length of the plant was measured in centimeter (cm) scale on 7th, 14th, 21st day of sowing from ground level to the shoot tip. (Table 7)
Root length:
The plants were uprooted without disturbing the root system, and then the roots were washed with tap water to remove the soil particles. The length of the root was measured in cm scale. (Table 7)
Biometric analysis; Estimation of chlorophyll :
Weighed 1g of leaf was finely cut in to pieces; tissues were ground to a pulp with the addition of 20ml of 80% acetone. Then centrifuged at 5000 for 5 min and transferred the supernatant to the 100ml volumetric flask. This procedure was repeated until the residue turned colorless. Finally the volume was made to 100ml with 80% acetone. The absorbance was read at 645,663nm against the solvent (80% acetone) blank.( Table 8a and 8b)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Totally 100 samples were collected in marine region of both water and sediments at the intervals of approximately 20 days (Table: 1).
Table :1 The total samples collected from marine region.
samples water sediment
1st time 10 10
2nd time 15 5
3rd time 15 5
4th time 15 5
5th time 15 5
Total 70 30
Out of 70 marine water samples collected, all the 70 samples were showed the presence of Azotobacter, but only 23 marine sediments out of 30 were showed the presence of Azotobacter (Table no: 2).
Table no 2: presence of Azotobacter sp (in percentage).
Source No of samples POSITIVE (Presence of Azotobacter) Percentage (Presence of Azotobacter)
Water 70 70 100
Sediment 30 23 76.6
Azotobacter sp is a gram-negative soildwelling organism with a wide variety of metabolic capabilities which includes the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia. These bacteria possess the highest cellular respiratory rate of any known organism. Their rapid consumption of oxygen allows them to grow well and to fix nitrogen under extreme aeration condition. (Page et al. 1988).
Initial isolation of marine bacteria prefers sea water or 3 % NaCl to fresh water in the medium for growth (ROBERT A. MACLEOD 1965).
The total hardness of water represents primarily the total concentration of calcium and magnesium ions expressed as calcium carbonate. Hardness may range from 0-100 of parts per million. Mg++ to maintain the respiratory activity of cell Azotobacter, an organism stable in water suspension.
Water analysis result showed that the total hardness of water was 20200 ppm and total chloride content was 18273.98 ppm. Zobell and upham define marine bacteria as being bacteria from the sea which on initial isolation required seawater in the medium for growth.
Table: 3 colony morphology of Azotobacter
Media Details
Jensons medium Large, circular, mucoid, watery due drop like colonies.
Azotobacter agar medium Small, circular, mucoid and watery colonies in a medium
Burks medium Surface Pellicle formation, turbidity indicating the Heavy growth of Azotobacter.
Marine agar medium Small, circular, smooth edged, raised elevated colonies were observed
Table4: characteristics of Azotobacter sp.
Test Result
Grams staining Gram negative rod shaped cells were seen
Catalase test Air bubbles were seen
Phase contrast microscopy Motile cells were seen/rarely non-motile cells were seen with different morphology.
The colony morphology of Azotobacter strain is found to be varying based on the selective media used for isolation.
Studies on the rates of nitrogen fixation were greatly enhanced by development of the acetylene reduction assay (Hardly et al., 1968). This assay is based on the fact that nitrogenase enzyme will reduce acetylene to ethylene. The rate of formation of ethylene is a measure of nitrogenase or nitrogen fixing activity. Ethylene can be conveniently assayed with great sensitivity using a gas chromatography. In this study acetylene reduction was performed and their peak values were noted. Based on this assay the organism was selected for pot culture experiment.
Table: 5 Chemical and nutrient analysis of garden soil
The garden soil was tested for micro and macro elements.
PARTICULARS LEVELS
pH 6.9
Electrical conductivity(dSm-1) 0.446
N(kg/ha) 98
P(Kg/ha) 14.5
K(Kg/ha) 275
Copper(ppm) 0.84
Manganese(ppm) 6.32
Iron(ppm) 8.04
Zinc(ppm) 1.04
pot culture experiment :
Five efficient strains were selected for pot culture experiment based on acetylene reduction assay.
Table 6: Percentage of germination
Result showed 85 percent of germination
pot culture seed germination in %
control 72
pot A 80
pot B 81
pot C 70
pot D 86
pot E 82
Table: 7 shoot and root length
Shoot and root length of the plant were measured, which ranged from 21.4
26.3 cm and 7.6-12.2cm respectively.
pot culture Shoot length(cm) Root length(cm)
7th day 14th day 21st day 7th day 14th day 21st day
CONTROL 8.3 18.0 20.0 7.2 9.2 11.2
POT A 8.9 21.0 23.0 7.6 9.6 11.6
POT B 9.5 22.1 24.2 8.5 9.8 11.1
POT C 7.3 19.2 21.4 8.0 9.7 11.5
POT D 9.1 24.4 26.3 8.2 9.8 12.0
POT E 9.2 22.6 25.0 8.5 9.7 12.2
Biometric analysis:
Estimation of chlorophyll by spectrophotometric method:
Table 8a : The optical density value at 645nm ranged from 0.102 0.202 OD and 0.266 0.562 OD at 663 nm
pot culture OD AT 645 nm OD AT 663 nm
control 0.103 0.302
pot A 0.156 0.423
pot B 0.202 0.562
pot C 0.182 0.522
pot D 0.154 0.455
pot E 0.102 0.266
Table 8a: Estimation of total chlorophyll content:
Pot culture Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Total chlorophyll mg/g
control 0.3558 0.0949 0.4502
pot A 0.4952 0.1592 0.6543
pot B 0.6594 0.1995 0.8587
pot C 0.6139 0.1724 0.7862
pot D 0.5364 0.1397 0.6759
pot E 0.3103 0.1091 0.4194
The total chlorophyll ranged from 0.4194-0.8587 mg total chlorophyll/g tissue.
The pot culture experiment results showed that, inoculation with Azotobacter influence the growth of black gram by increasing their shoot and root length and chlorophyll content.
Experiments with Azotobacter cultures and crop plants at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, lead us to believe that significant increases in growth and yield of wheat, rice and vegetable crops could be obtained in pot trials. Experiment on soil Azotobacter on the growth of maize was carried out by N.A Hegazi(1979) result showed significant increase in the count of Azotobacter in 6 week- old plant.
A pot culture experiment was conducted by C.V Kanchan to evaluvating the effects of Azotobacter inoculants on the yield of wheat. M.A kader(2002) was conducted a pot culture experiment on straw. He found significant increase in root growth by the treatment of Azotobacter .
S.K.Kavimandan (1986) was carried out a pot experiment with an Azotobacter chroococcum along with 50 Kg N /Ha. He found an adverse effect of bacterial inoculation on the yield of wheat. Choudhury .A(2005) carried out pot culture experiment on three rice cultivars with eight different N2 fixing bacteria strains with the objective to find out effective nitrogen fixer. He found that Azospirillum appeared to be the best followed by Pseudomonas and Azotobacter when inoculated to rice variety. Ravikumar et al (2004) found inoculation with Azotobacter in mangrove soil increase seedlings,. Root biomass, shoot biomass ,total chlorophyll of plant . thus azotobacterisation is beneficial in raising vigorous seedlings of mangrove in coastal wetlands.
CONCLUTION :
A marine sample indicates that the concentration of nitrogen-fixing organisms is much lower in oceanic environments than in coastal environments. However, even at low densities, active population of nitrogen- fixing microorganism over vast areas of the open ocean could contribute substantially to the nitrogen inputs in the worlds ocean (Zehr et al 1998)
This study revealed that marine Azotobacter can be cultivated in laboratory condition, which provides more information on growth pattern on different media. Water analysis result showed high concentration of calcium, magnesium, chloride content.
Acetylene reduction assay was performed and checked the enzyme activity of randomly selected samples and were used for pot culture experiment. The pot culture experiment showed significant increase in shoot, root length of the plant. Hence marine Azotobacter can survive in soil and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Marine Azotobacter can be used as a suitable biofertilizer in order to reduce the usage of chemical fertilizer which is potent harmful substances mainly petrochemicals.
LITERATURE CITED:
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Richter. O. 1928. Natrium: Ein notwendiges Nahrelement fur eine marine mikroarophile Leuchbakterie. Anz. Oesterr. Akad. Wiss. Math. Naturw. KI. 101: 261-292.
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Tyler. M.E., M.C.Bielling and D.B. Pratt, 1960. Mineral requirements and other characters of selected marine bacteria Jou. Gen. Microbiol. Vol.23: 153-161.
Vela G.R. and Rosenthal R.S., 1972. Effect of Peplon on Azotobacter Morphology, America Society for Microbiology. Vol.111 No.1.
Zobell. C.E and Upham H.C., 1994. A list of marine bacteria including description of sixty new species. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanography. Vol. 5: 239-292.
Standard method for the examination of water and waste water, 16th edition, APHA, AWWA, WPCF.
* Cristian G.D. Analytical Chemistry 4th Edition, J. Wiley and Sons.
* Harris D.C. Quantitative Chemical Analysis 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman.
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* http://www.indiaagronet.com/
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* The microbial world: The nitrogen cycle and nitrogen fixation produced by Jim Deacon, Institute of cell and molecular biology, the University of Edinburgh.
* Determination of hardness of water method WHO/M/26.RI, revised 10 Dec. 1999.
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The nitrogenous complex
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Azotobacter compete article
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Chlorophyll : why?
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(** Book Reference)
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Assessing Utilization of Low-Input Agriculture Technologies (Liats) in Malawi: Adoption and Challenges for the Malawian Subsistence Farmer
Posted on January 11th, 2010 by admin
Introduction
There is growing concern about agricultural activities leading to environmental degradation and health risks associated with intensively produced foodstuffs. As a result interest in organic agriculture is increasing. This growing interest in sustainable and organic natural resource management and healthy eating, coupled with the increasing number of resource-poor farmers who cannot afford agrichemicals, has led to the potential for organic farming in addressing the issue of sustainable food production and livelihoods of resource-poor people in sub-Saharan Africa.
Low in-put agriculture applies to systems that rely less on external, purchased inputs and more on internal resources. However, low-inout agriculture technolgy (LIAT) has conveyed a negative impression in various agriculture circles and this is cited as a major barrier to wider adoption of low-input agriculture technologies (LIATs) in Malawi and sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.
Increasingly, it has been recognized that environmental deterioration in Africa is a central factor holding back agriculture. The disappearance of forest areas accelerates land degradation. Even on gently sloping cropland, topsoil losses have been reported to range from 25 tonnes to 250 tonnes per hectare, across the region. One study has estimated that soil degradation and erosion in Africa reduces the productivity of land about 1 per cent a year (Daberkow and Reichederfer, 1988).
According to World Bank figures (1982), some 2.9 million hectares of forest were lost each year in sub-Saharan Africa during the 1980s, mainly due to clearing by farmers and loggers. The Soil Reference and Information Centre (2007) in the Netherlands estimates that 321 million hectares of African land are moderately to extremely degraded. Since 1950, the amount of water available per person in Africa has fallen by more than half, and may plummet further to half its current level within the next 25 years.
While African governments have become more aware of the relationship between the environment and agricultural productivity, much of the impetus for concrete and more integrated action has come from the grassroots. Confronted with deteriorating environmental conditions, villagers across the continent, often with support from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), have taken the initiative to set up woodlots, terrace hillsides, conserve threatened water sources and adopt more environmentally sustainable farming methods.
Malawi Profile
Malawi is a landlocked country about 117,068 km2, with a population of about 12 million people. It is situated in southeastern Africa, where the Great Rift Valley traverses the country from north to south. In this deep trough lies Lake Malawi, the third-largest lake in Africa, comprising about 20% of Malawi’s land area. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometers farther south in Mozambique. East and west of the Rift Valley, the land forms high plateaus, generally between 900 and 1,200 meters above sea level.
Malawi is a densely populated country with an economy heavily dependent on agriculture. The country has few exploitable mineral resources. Its two most important export crops are tobacco and tea. Traditionally Malawi has been self-sufficient in its staple food, maize, and during the 1980s exported substantial quantities to its drought-stricken neighbors. Agriculture represents 38.6% of the GDP, accounts for over 80% of the labour force, and represents about 80% of all exports. Nearly 90% of the population engages in subsistence farming. Smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops, including maize, beans, rice, cassava, tobacco, and groundnuts (peanuts). The agricultural sector contributes about 63.7% of total income for the rural population, 65% of manufacturing sectors raw materials, and approximately 87% of total employment. Financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite.
Many Malawian subsistence farmers have unconsciously practiced LIATs since time immemorial until the advent of advanced technology and conventional farming systems aimed at producing more to food the ever-increasing population. Conventional farming system has by and by overtaken traditional low-input agriculture. However, LIATs system of farming is not receiving much attention for various reasons. There is thus need to revisit the system and identify the needs and gaps that impede adoption of LIAT system of farming. The primary objective of the research was to identify the challenges of adoption of organic agriculture that exist in the development of LIATs in Malawi and to recommend the formulation of policies that will improve sustainability in agriculture.
Definitions
Organic farming
There are varied definitions of organic farming but the basic principles of this type of farming apply to all. The principles of organic farming as expressed in the standards document of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) are:
To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity
To work with natural systems rather seeking to dominate them
To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, involving microorganisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals
To maintain and increase the long-term fertility of soils
To use as far as possible renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems
To avoid all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural activities
To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings
To allow agricultural producers an adequate return and satisfaction from their work including a safe working environment
These principles provide the basis for day-to-day farming practice. They directly give rise to the techniques of organic farming, such as composting, the use of rotations, the avoidance of soluble fertilizers, the prohibition of intensive livestock operations, the avoidance of antibiotics and hormone stimulants, the use of mechanical methods of weed control, etc.
Organic farming has also been defined as a farming system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent possible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.
The definitions and principles of organic farming underlie the notion of low input agriculture, which emphasizes use of internal inputs and not external inputs. Internal inputs are generally much cheaper and affordable compared to external inputs.
Low In-put Agriculture Technology (LIAT)
This is a production activity that uses synthetic fertilizers or pesticides below rates commonly recommended. It does not mean elimination of these materials or inputs. Yields are maintained through greater emphasis on cultural practices, integrated pest management (IPM), and utilization of on-farm resources and management. LIAT has also been termed low input and sustainable agriculture, LISA) by other schools of agriculture. The term in both cases applies to those systems that rely less on external, purchased inputs and more on internal resources, while sustaining the natural resources.
Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.
While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals and not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes as versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.
Methodology
The research on organic farming and LIAT was done using interviews of key-informants from the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and those who practice organic farming as a strategy of LIAT. Four visits to fifteen different key-informants were made. The farmers (key-informants) were purposefully selected on the merit of known cases of LIA and organic farming in Malawi. An interview questionnaire was administered at each visit to solicit information related to the research questions what are the challenges of adoption of organic farming faced by farmers in Malawi? and what LIATs are currently practiced in Malawi? Internet search was also used to get more literature on organic farming and LIAT in sub-Sahara Africa and Malawi. The search words used were low-input agricultute, organic farming, Malawi, sub-Sahara Africa, subsistence agriculture.
Results
Views of Malawi Organic Growers Association (MOGA)
Africa is the only continent in which food production has failed to keep up with the growth in population. In Malawi, where there is a shortage of the staple food, maize, hunger and malnutrition result in high infant mortality. Here, some farmers are experimenting with organic farming systems – which do not rely on man-made chemicals – and their techniques are being observed by farmer groups from other countries. The methods being used involve a combination of irrigation, companion planting, composting and soil conservation. Currently there are 2,400 smallholder farmers in fourteen farmer clubs that practice organic farming in Malawi. These are closely supervised by the Malawi Organic Growers Association (MOGA), whose objective is to promote organic farming on a national level so that it contributes to poverty reduction, food security and natural resources management through training of its members. The objective of MOGA will be achieved through the following activities;
Promoting and protecting the interests of organic producers
Selecting suitable crops and coordinating and monitoring production among members
Setting rules for standardization and certification of organic products which are accepted nationally and internationally
Assisting farmer members increase their production levels, crop diversification and food security
Establishing contacts for marketing at national, regional and international levels
Informing and training members in post-harvest processing to add value to products
MOGA has also established a demonstration and training centre for organic farming in Dzalanyama, Lilongwe. It is also promoting a project (permaculture) to protect ecosysytems where farmers used to cut down trees for shifting cultivation. Permaculture is largely promoted at one of the farmers who practice organic farming. His farm is called Freedom Gardens and it acts as a demonstration garden for other potential farmers who go to learn permaculture and other strategies of organic farming
Interview with Agriculture Expert (key-informant)
Experts from the MOGA gave their views on LIA and organic agriculture. The discussion with the researcher (RS) and Agriculture Expert (AE) went as follows;
RS. What are the advantages of turning to organic agriculture?
AE: It’s difficult to generalize, because examples of successful organic farming systems can be found in many different conditions. A major advantage of course is that it stops environmental degradation. Organic techniques are used to regenerate degraded areas. A second advantage is that, because of diversification, it offers farmers a much more secure income than when they rely on only one or two outputs. The consumption of byproducts improves the health of the farm family.
Thirdly, farmers maintain nutrient balances in the soil through locally available organic materials or recycled farm wastes. Soil nutritional status is thus better maintained in areas where access to synthetic inputs is limited or where they are too expensive.
Finally, health hazards posed by pesticides and herbicides fall are significantly reduced through organic farming.
RS: Exactly what is low-external-input agriculture; what are its principles?
AE: Low-external-input farming reduces as much as possible the use of external inputs like pesticides, herbicides and synthetic fertilizers and replaces them with internal inputs. The basic principle is that farming is seen as both agro- and ecosystem management. The farmer is managing a farm with coherent diversity. The important concepts are diversification of crops and animals, crop rotation, and organic matter cycles. Low-external-input agriculture does not prohibit synthetic inputs. It’s just that when the principles are applied, the need for synthetics disappears. Mixed cropping, green manuring, composting, use of local organic materials, reduced tillage and biodynamic preparations are also included. These things are little more than common sense. Developing these skills with the farmer is the biggest problem.
RS: How accepted is organic agriculture today?
AE: Organic farming isn’t exactly new. Many so-called traditional systems have worked for a long time without external inputs and chemicals – and are still working. The best proof that organic farming can work is that it has worked for a long time. This doesn’t mean it can’t be improved. It certainly has to be. But to improve it, it’s not necessary to use external inputs. There are other ways. Here I feel FAO is weak. The Organization feels that agricultural improvement means putting in chemicals. That’s a one-sided view. In some cases, that approach is viable, but in others it’s not. And I feel we have a role to play in developing traditional systems that are still low-external-input without chemicals. The means to do this involves the concept of nutrient balances including organic matter. Science today has a lot more information about what is happening with soil resources, and with these data many traditional systems can be improved without chemicals.
RS: Most districts in Malawi have very high population densities, how can low-external-input agriculture work in places like these?
AE: The fact is that very often systems are being degraded because the external inputs are not properly used. In organic farming, the need for external inputs is reduced through nutrient cycling and an input like labour. When other external inputs are necessary, they are organic materials. You can make biologically intensive production systems with above average yields, employing more people, using renewable, organic resources.
Admittedly, you have to balance population pressures to some degree as well. If you have degraded soils, you need to build up soil fertility, and when the fertility is there you have to try to maintain it. The problem at the moment is that people have tried for too long to use the soil as something to extract from, without trying to recycle things back into it.
The intensification of an agricultural system need not mean automatically putting in more chemicals. There are different ways – intercropping, green manuring, recycling of manure, and planting crops at different times, so as to maximize the potential of a piece of land. You can use cropping systems so that you have a diversity of crop species that complement each other. You can plant crop combinations that are less susceptible to pest attacks, so that you don’t have to keep relying on the pesticides used with monocultures.
RS. Can you give an overview of organic farming in Malawi?
AE. Compared to the population of Malawi (about 12 million people), those practicing organic farming in Malawi are few although there is an untapped demand for organic produce within and outside Malawi. The question is therefore how to go into this market by encouraging farmers to grow organic produce and forming links between potential farmers and the market. This is because marketing is the major impediment in the adoption of organic farming.
There are currently no standards for organic farming in the country which control the production of organic goods and there is also little awareness by the potential farmers of the benefits of organic farming.
RS. What are the low-input technologies that are currently used in Malawi?
AE. Many subsistence farmers in Malawi practice LIA albeit unconsciously. Due to unaffordability of external agriculture inputs farmers have always produced crops using on-farm inputs. Some of the strategies which are currently practiced by subsistence farmers are;
Irrigation
There are many different irrigation systems available to suit particular conditions. The one commonly used in Malawi is that which is traditionally used in many parts of the world – the irrigation water is carried to the fields along channels at the highest edge of the land and then along smaller channels made between the rows of plants. The water then soaks into the ground around the plants.
Companion Planting
A technique used by the farmers interviewed to help to control pests is to plant together different kinds of crop which help each other to survive and grow successfully. One of the reasons “companion plants” help each other is because one may deter the pest of its neighbour. For example, many pests avoid garlic so this can be used very effectively for companion planting with many crops.
In some cases, it is possible to use a plant which is more attractive to the pest than the crop plant itself. This idea is used in parts of Africa where farmers have found that milkweed planted among vegetables reduces the number of aphids on their crops – simply because the aphids prefer the milkweed to the vegetables.
In a similar way to companion planting, plants can be used to attract predators which will then eat the pests. Bushes and trees left around crop fields provide cover for many useful insects and birds. There are many plants whose flowers will attract predators and encourage them to lay more eggs, so increasing the number of insects which will attack the pests.
Composting
If the soil is to continue to provide the nourishment needed by crop plants, it must be kept in good condition and its natural nutrients replaced. Artificial, chemical fertizers can not do this because they only supply the short-term needs of the plant but do not feed the soil itself – so feeding of the next crop with more, expensive chemicals becomes necessary. By returning natural wastes and animal manure to the soil, as well as feeding the plants, the farmer can also improve the structure of the soil so that it retains water more effectively.
A very effective way of using vegetable wastes in this way is by making it into compost. This is made up of plant and animal residues which have been broken down by bacteria. Since this is a natural process, compost is very easy and inexpensive to make and is an effective and long-lasting way of improving soil and crop quality. If the process is well managed, the heat produced as the materials rot will often be enough to kill weed seeds and plant diseases.
Freedom Gardens uses the trench composting system but there are many different ways of making compost, all of which have been devised to suit various waste materials and the climates in which they are used. It is essential in all methods, however, to have a mixture of different kinds of materials some young, living material and some older, dead material – so that the final product has a good balance of natural carbon and nitrogen which the crop plants will need.
Soil conservation
In order to retain the soil and avoid its loss through erosion by the wind or rain, it helps to grow plants which bind it together. Banana plants and vetiver grass are used for this at farmers gardens. Both of these have the additional benefit of providing either a food crop (banana) or a useful farm material in the form of mulch or animal feed (vetiver). Vetiver grass has been used very successfully in more than 50 countries for soil and water conservation. When fully established, a vetiver hedge will hold back surface water and trap any soil which is already being carried in the water.
Other methods of retaining soil include building terraces on steep slopes or using the gentler contours of the land to make flat areas in which rain water will rest until it has soaked naturally into the ground instead of running swiftly down the slope, carrying away the surface soil.
Intercropping
Due to land pressure farmers maximize production by planting two or more crops in a single field. This has the added advantage of reducing pests attack through reduced apparency of crops in a mixed stand. Intercropping with legumes is also beneficial in soil nitrogen enrichment by the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legume crops.
Agroforestry
This technology has great potential for soil fertility improvement, fruit tree domestication, sustainable tree seed systems and fodder for livestock production. Various leguminous tree species are used in agroforestry in Malawi. An example is Gliricidia sepium which is a preferred species of tree used in this technology. Its leaves are rich in nitrogen (N), sometimes up to 4% of the leaf biomass. A second quality is that the leaves provide organic matter, which help to improve the soils fertility and structure. Research at Makoka and application of the technology at nearby farms has shown that Gliricidia intercropping helps to rejuvenate the soil and to improve soil fertility, without the use of fertiliser.
Results indicate a definite increase in the maize crop yield using the simultaneous intercropping with Gliricidia. The farmer can obtain yields of up to 3-4 tonnes.
Permaculture
Permaculture is about designing ecological human habitats and food production systems. It is a land use and community building movement which strives for the harmonious integration of human dwellings, climate, annual and perennial plants, animals, soils, and water into stable, productive communities.
A central theme in permaculture is the design of ecological landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is placed on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals to recycle nutrients and graze weeds.
Permaculture can be applied to create productive ecosystems from the human- use standpoint or to help degraded ecosystems recover health and wildness. Permaculture can be applied in any ecosystem, no matter how degraded it may be.
Permaculture demonstration sites in Malawi have short-term objectives all of which are aimed at demonstrating to local subsistence farmers the achievements of organic agriculture. Some of the activities which are aimed at food production and income generating are;
Vegetable growing for: money, food, chicken food, compost manure, fish ponds;
Poultry farming for: money, food, manure for vegetables, manure for fish ponds;
Fish farming for: money, food, fish pond manure for vegetable growing;
Woodlot for: money, timber, fuel;
Cattle farming for: food, money (to fatten and sell), manure for vegetables and fish ponds;
Crops (intercropping), one ridge having maize, beans and potatoes which are companion plants. This method is used for a number of reasons:
o It increases long lasting fertility;
o It is a cheaper way of farming;
o It avoids soil and water chemical contamination.
Mulching
Water infiltration depends on there being sufficient porosity in the surface soil for rainfall to infiltrate, and in the subsoil and parent material (if shallow) for rainwater to percolate. The overriding approach should be to instill in society, and in farmers, extensionists and researchers in particular, the will to create and sustain soil conditions that encourage the infiltration of rainfall where it falls, and to counteract the causes of runoff. This implies that the porosity of the soil must be at least maintained, or increased.
Discussion
Low-input agriculture has emerged as an important issue as its popularity is motivated and supported by growing evidence of environmental and health risks from agrichemicals. The drop in commodity prices and farm equity value which occurred in 1981-87 has rekindled interest in developing cost-reducing technologies.
Sub-Saharan Africa agricultural production is currently challenged by many constraints faced by farmers across Africa. While some areas offer high productivity and have been intensively cultivated, others are plagued by low soil fertility, poor access to resources such as water, infrastructure and markets. Organic farming offers potential for smallholder farmers to improve their livelihood both through increased yield and access to markets. However, it is not as easy to embark on organic farming and new levels of organization and investment are required from government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and households.
In Malawi over 90% of the population is engaged in Agricultural production which contributes 38.6% of the national gross domestic product, 80% of the export earnings and employs 80% of the labour force (A Guide to Agricultural Production and Natural Resources Management, 2005). According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the main Agriculture sub-sectors include crops contributing about 80%, livestock contributing 13% and fisheries contributing about 6%. Over 95% of the farmers are smallholders with landholdings ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 acres. The majority of these smallholder farmers have rich indigenous knowledge that has sustained their livelihoods, food security as well as land productivity for hundreds of years with very little or no use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides and veterinary drugs. However they have limited capital.
Malawi is among the least users of artificial fertilizers and other agrichemicals in Africa with less than 14% or 1 kg of fertilizer per hectare compared to sub-Sahara average of 9kg/ha . Malawi therefore has a high comparative advantage for organic agriculture production in Africa.
Developments in the organic agriculture sub-sector have been driven by developments in international markets and trade. The world market for organic products is now estimated to be above 30 billion US dollars. Average global growth in demand and market of organic products is currently estimated to be 25% per year (Grolink 2004). The growing consumer interest triggered off rapid growth in international trade in organic products. The trading environment is witnessing changes due to;
Increased consumer concerns for the health and safety.
Increased consumer consciousness regarding the environment and social issues
of production and marketing.
The demand for Malawi Organic products in the international markets is growing, unfortunately is not yet marched by the supply. This is demonstrated by the number of business contracts being received by MOGA and the government.
Challenges
The Agriculture sector in general faces some challenges broadly categorized as lack of capital, low production and productivity, poor marketing system, human resource constraints and reliance on unpredictable weather conditions. The African farmer is further constrained by increase in migration to urban settlements and HIV and AIDs. However, the specific challenges in the Organic Sub-sector are:-
Low investment in organic agriculture production leading to failure in fulfilling existing market opportunities/orders
Limited research in organic agriculture.
Limited extension services delivery in organic agriculture.
High costs of international inspection and certification.
Lack of internationally recognized local organic certification body.
Inadequate documentation on organic agriculture.
Demand outpaces supply
Lack of organized smallholders groups to consistently raise volumes to meet market orders.
Absence of an explicit policy on Organic Agriculture.
Conclusion
Several factors have come together in recent years which highlight the necessity for a fundamental review of agricultural activities. The traditional goal of maximizing output is being countered by widespread concern of the environment, and by the growing realization that finite natural resources need to be more carefully managed. Organic farming has a positive contribution to make as it is dependent upon maintaining ecological balance and developing biological processes to their maximum. The preservation of soil structure, earthworms, microorganisms and insects is essential to the working of an organic system. Therefore the protection of the soil and environment is fundamental for the organic farmer.
References
A Guide to Agricultural Production and Natural Resources Management. 2005. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Lilongwe, Malawi.
Altieri, M. 1987. Agro ecology-the scientific basis for alternative agriculture. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
Balfour, E. 1975. The Living Soil and the Haughley Experiment. Universe Books, New York.
Daberkow, S.G. and K.H. Reichelderfer. 1988. Low-Input Agriculture: Trends, Goals, and Prospects for Input Use. American Journal of Agriculture Economics. 70 (5). Pp 1159-1166.
Grolink . 2004
Howard, A. 1948. An Agriculture Testament. Oxford University Press, London.
Knorr, D. 1982. Sustainable Food Systems. AVI Publishing, Westport. Conn.
Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, UK.
Lindenbach-Gibson, R and Gray, R. Low-Input Agriculture Gap Analysis. Centre for Agriculture Studies, University of Saskatchewan.
Promotion of Organic Products from Africa http://www.sourcewatch.org/index. 2006.
The Soil Reference and Information Centre. 2007. Netherlands
World Bank. 1982. Ninth Annual Review of Project Performance Audit Results. World Bank Group.
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